Biography of Augustus DeMorgan :: essays research papers

Augustus DeMorgan was an English mathematician, logician, and bibliographer. He was born in June 1806 at Madura, Madras presidency, India and educated at Trinity College, Cambridge in 1823. Augustus DeMorgan had passed away on March 18, 1871, in London.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Augustus was recognized as far superior in mathematical ability to any other person there, but his refusal to commit to studying resulted in his finishing only in fourth place in his class.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  In 1828 he became professor of mathematics at the newly established University College in London. He taught there until 1806, except for a break of five years from 1831 to 1836. DeMorgan was the first president of London Mathematical Society, which was founded in 1866.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DeMorgan’s aim as a mathematician was to place the subject on a more rigorous foundation. As a teacher he was unrivaled, and no topic was too insignificant to receive his careful attention. In 1838 he introduced the term “ mathematical induction'; to differentiate between the hypothetical induction of empirical science and the rigorous method. Often used in mathematical proof, for advancing from n to n+I.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  DeMorgan made his greatest contributions to knowledge. The renaissance of logical studies, which began in the first half of the 19th century, was due almost entirely to the writings of the two British mathematicians, DeMorgan and G. Boole. He always laid much stress upon the importance of logical training. His importance in the history of logic’s, however, primarily due to his realization that the subject as it had come down from Aristole was unnecessarily restricted scope. By reflecting on the processes of mathematics, he was led like Boole, to the conviction that a far larger number of valid inference were possible that had hitherto been recognized.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  His most notable achievements were to lay the foundation for the theory of relations to prepare the way to rise of modern symbolic, or mathematical, logic. His name is commemorated in DeMorgan’s Law, which is usually presented in the concise alternative forms ~( pvq ) = ~p & ~q; and ~( p&q ) = `~p v ~q. These read not ( p or q ) equals not p or not q ; and not ( p and q ) equals not p or not q.   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  These statements assert that the negative ( or contradictory) of an alternative proposition is a conjunction which the conjuncts are the contradictions of the corresponding alternants. That the negative of a conjunctive is an alternative proposition in which the alternants are the contradictories of the corresponding conjuncts.

Freedom, Patriarchy, and Racial Oppression Essay example -- United Sta

Freedom, Patriarchy, and Racial Oppression The French philosopher Jean-Paul Sarte is known to have established existentialism in France after the liberation of Paris in 1944. Existentialism is the philosophy that states that the values people choose influences the choices they make and how they interpret the meanings of their decisions. When existentialism was introduced in the United States, it challenged Americans to access their ethical standards from a different perspective. America is associated with being "The land of the free". However, the American society has set standards on women's roles and racial castes and until these oppressions are eliminated the entire society will never have freedom. What is freedom? Freedom, as defined by Krisnamurti, is a state of mind in which there is no fear or compulsion, no urge to be secure. In the American society there is a need for security and there is fear. People conform to society's ideas to feel secure and fear being different, fear thinking on their own to set their own standards and choose their own values. Sartre's existentialist view of freedom is that it preexists value choices. Because people do not freely choose and follow their values, society creates ideals that control their views in life. These ideals are supposed to maintain order in society by showing everyone their place, but these ideals displace what society should stand for and prevent people from freedom. Should people follow societybs norm or become existentialists and think on their own? Society has set limits on gender roles with ideals such as male privilege and patriarchy. Patriarchy is the political structure to control womenbs thoughts on their sexuality, laboring, and place in society so... ... the exact abilities that they have and that those views and values weakening society. They could choose new values that would allow equal opportunity for all people and a better society would be able to come into existence. Minorities could use an existentialist perspective to improve their standards of themselves. The American ideals on patriarchy, male privilege, and race will continue to oppress the entire society from freedom until these views can be changed as people realize what freedom really is. People must first free themselves from society's views by realizing that they have a negative affect on everyone. They must freely choose their own values. When people in society assess their ethical standards from a new perspective and become existentialist, freedom will preexist value choices and people will choose values with the equality of everyone in mind.

Sammy the Social Climber in John Updikes A&P :: A&P Essays

Sammy the Social Climber in A & P Men will go to extreme measures to impress women. This is the case in the story "A & P" written by John Updike. Sammy, who is a cashier at a supermarket, displays a classic example of a man trying to impress a woman. His rash decision to quit his job was a bad decision and will definitely have an adverse effect on him in the future. Sammy seems doomed from the very first sentence when he says, "In walks three girls in nothing but bathing suits" (Updike 1026). He notices every little detail about the girls from the color of their bathing suits to their tan lines. At this time he is checking out "one of these cash-register-watchers," and he is yelled at for ringing up her item twice (Updike 1026). This distraction from his job shows his interest in the girls, especially the one he calls "Queenie." To Sammy’s delight, Queenie and her two friends pick his register to purchase the "Fancy Herring Snacks in Pure Sour Cream" (Updike 1027). When she puts the snacks down on the counter, Sammy notices that her hands are free. While he is wondering where the money is going to come from, she proceeds to pull the dollar bills "out of the hollow at the center of her nubbled pink top" (Updike 1027). This gesture puts Sammy in total awe of the girl, and this is the turning point, this is when he makes his decision that he should try to impress her. His big chance comes when the store manager, Lengel, makes a visit to Sammy’s line. "Girls, this isn’t the beach," is the first thing Lengel says to the girls when he sees them (Updike 1028). Queenie explains that her mother sent her to pick up some herring snacks, implying that since her mother sent her it is perfectly fine for her to be in the store with only a bathing suit on. While Lengel and Queenie are arguing, Sammy visualizes himself at Queenie’s house during a party. In his imagination he sees, "her father and the other men were standing around in ice-cream coats and bow ties and the women were in sandals picking up herring snacks on toothpicks off a big glass plate and they were all holding drinks the color of water with olives and sprigs of mint in them" (Updike 1028).

How to Avoid Translation, Transaction and Economic Exposures

Part 1 Question a Provide examples of how real world multinational corporations (MNC) reduce their translation, transaction and economic exposures. Translation exposure is the effect of changes in exchange rates on the accounting values of financial statements (Shapiro, 2010, p. 356). The translation exposure arises from the conversion the financial statements denominated in foreign currency from denominated in home currency. The MNCs could reduce their translation by using funds adjustment. For an example, if the devaluation of USD is expected for a Chinese company.The company could use direct funds adjustment such as pricing the exports in RMB and pricing the imports in USD, investing in RMB securities and replacing loans in RMB with the loans in USD. The company also could use indirect funds adjustment as paying out dividens, fees and other expends in advance, and speeding up the payment of accounting payable and delaying the collection of accounting receivable in USD. Transaction exposure measures the exchange gains and losses in cash flows in the value of domestic currency, which is denominated in foreign currency (Shapiro, 2010, p. 57). Multinational corporations often lower transaction exposure by making the contract with bank to lock in a forward exchange rate. For an example, an Australian import company expected to pay to an American supplier 10000 USD for the goods half year later. The company could sign a forward foreign exchange which is fixed at 0. 9 AUD per USD, and it allows carrying on the transaction in contract provision deadline any time, take at that time exchange rate as. So if there would be depreciation of home currency, and the Spot exchange rate is at 1. AUD per USD, the company had the right to convert their AUD into USD at previous exchange rate which is at 0. 9 from bank, so the amount of balance was the financial savings in cash flows. Economic exposure measures the impact of exchange rate fluctuations on the operating cash flows t horough the sales price, sales volume, and production cost (Shapiro, 2010, p. 359). So the multinational corporations could reduce their economic exposures by marketing and production strategies.For an example, in the export business, if the currency is soft in home country, the company should more revenue and profit from product pricing, and they should consider lower price by reducing cost of product, such as expanding their scope of operation for reducing the cost of production, shifting production to home for reducing cost of currency exchange. Conversely, if the home country supplies with hard currency, they could shift production to local with soft currency for reducing cost of production. Question bDefine the international debt, equity and trade financing options available to MNCs. Explain why MNCs use these financing source. International debt financing refers to the fund demanders’ credit behaviours of raising funds directly from the public by issuing various debt or stocks in the international bond market (Shapiro, 2010, p. 464). There are two kinds of foreign bond. The first kind is the bonds denominated in the local currency that are issued in the national bond market, and the second kind is the bonds denominated in the home currency that are issued in the local bond market.The important foreign bonds in the world include Yankee bonds of the US and Swiss franc bonds of Swiss, Samurai bonds of Japan and Bulldog Bond from the London market. International debt financing can have multiple sources of capital from different foreign markets. The international debt can be issued in a great number with low cost, and MNCs only need to pay the interest as required and return the principal on the due date. The company’s business condition has nothing to do with creditors and creditors cannot intervene with the company’s management and operation.The management and decision-making are both subject to the discretion of the company itself. Int ernational equity financing refers to enterprises’ fund-raising by issuing stocks in the foreign markets (Shapiro, 2010, p. 466). Since stocks can only be transferred but cannot be withdrawn, the capital raised by international stock financing is long-term capital. For the MNCs could benefit lots of advantage of the International equity financing. Firstly, the international equity financing could reduce the funding risk.For some large MNCs located in the small countries, the market could not meet the need of huge issues, it is necessary to finance in more market. Then, issuing the overseas shares could attract more overseas investors, so there is an increase of demand for the companys’ shares, thereby the price of share would also increase and achieve the maximization of the wealth. Trade financing refers to the short-term financing or credit facility provided by banks to importers or exporters in relation to the settlement of import and export trade (Shapiro, 2010, p. 36). Trading financing is divided into import and export trade financing. In general, in respect of import financing, a letter of credit is adopted (Shapiro, 2010, p. 638). When the issuing bank has received proper and complete documents as required, the applicant makes the payment under the letter of credit to repay the short-term financing. The letter of credit is easy to operate and makes the approval procedures of the administration of foreign exchange much simpler. At the same time, a sight letter of credit is also used.As a result, importers can have access to the long-term letter of credit financing. The export trading financing could take a packing loan. Before exporting the goods specified in the letter of credit provided by the overseas importer, the packing loan is employed to cover the expenses of goods, materials, production and shipment. When the shipment of the goods is completed, the exporter presents all the documents to the negotiating bank for payment under the t erms of the credit.Upon the receipt of the payment of goods, the packing loan should be paid back (Bank of China, 2012). Part 2 Briefly explain the differences between the foreign direct investments (FDI) and portfolio investment. Then collect the required the data from the Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) website and answer the following questions: Foreign direct investment refers to the trade activity of directly entering other countries for production by means of joint venture, sole proprietorship, etc (Shapiro, 2010, p. 198).With direct investment, investors can possess all or part of the enterprise assets and the ownership of operation, and directly perform or participate in the operation and management. Portfolio investment refers to the investment behaviours of purchasing financial securities of other countries to obtain certain proceeds (Shapiro, 2010, p. 198). Compared with direct investment, indirect investment’s investors only have the right to certain proceeds on a regular basis in addition to stock investment, but have no right to intervene with the invitee’s operation and management.Question a List the ten largest recipient countries of US FDI in the years 1990, 2000 and 2010. You need to provide the list of countries as well as the amount of FDI in USD. [pic] Source: U. S. Bureau of Economic Analysis (BEA) website. Question b What factors do you think account for these countries being the largest recipients of US FDI? Firstly, both these countries have strong political stability, because there are no changes of government and wars in recent, and the social condition and the rate of economic development of that country are positive.The positive political stability brings a safe investment environment to MNCs, which effectively enhances their confidence and willingness to invest. Secondly, these countries have reasonable, normative and stable legal systems. The countries could provide enough protection for foreign investors. Then, t hese countries have a good economic outlook in their domestic such as the low inflation, balance-of-payment surpluses and the strong growth rate of per capita GDP. So, the positive economic situation, the less likely it is to face risk that will inevitably harm foreign companies (Shapiro, 2010, p. 30). Question c Has the list of recipient counties changed over the concerned period? What might account for these changes? Yes, the list has changed over the concerned period. For most MNCs, the political and economic risks may discourage investors to invest in the countries. Political risk refers to the possibility of causing loss to investment activities of foreign investors because of the change in investment environment as a result of the change in the political situation of the host country (Shapiro, 2010, p. 277).Generally speaking, the main political risk influenced on the investment decision which includes: War Risk, when a political change or war occurs in the host country, it wi ll bring damage to the sales or profits of foreign-funded enterprises in the host country and even endanger the survival of these enterprises Legal risk, with the unreasonable laws and regulations and the direct legal confrontation between the investment country and host country, host country cannot provide enough protection for foreign investors, the assets of enterprises are more likely to suffer loss.Policy change risk, the change in policies concerning land, tax, market and exchange of the host country may influence the profits and development of enterprises. The government in the host country may set up barriers or impose various pressures for enterprises of the investment country, which often results in loss or bankruptcy for foreign-funded enterprises. Government relations risk, inharmonious government relations will lead to mutual hostility and sanctions in economy.As a result, foreign-funded enterprises are the first to be affected, which generates great risk for investment and operating activities. Economic risk mainly stems from the change in the economic policies and economic situation of the host country (Shapiro, 2010, p. 277), which changes may strike the foreign-funded enterprises and generate risk for their investment and operation. The economic risk mainly includes: Exchange rate risk, foreign investment activities often involve the conversion of different currencies.The change in exchange rate may increase the production cost, reduce the profitability of enterprises. Tax risk, the preference level of tax policy in the host country directly influences the management efficiency of enterprises. Interest rate risk, the fluctuation in the interest rate of the host country will have a direct impact on the financing cost and capital utilization efficiency of enterprises. Question d Do you except a change to the 2010 list over the next decade? Explain.Yes, I think some countries in the Third World and Eastern Europe will come into the list. With the strong economic and growth and rising standard of living, these emerging markets might be so profitable to the investors, and these host governments do recognise the free market oriented situation that it has play the role of economic growth. In the past years, the Third World’s and Eastern European countries are more open to the FDI by setting up free market oriented policies. These countries introduced a number of trade liberalization polices.In the free market system, prices and interest rate are set by market. The countries also have tax reform in the past years, that brought to foreign investors much more preferential taxation. They are accelerating the privatisation programme, it identified that government was willing to accept and support private economic activities, which leads to advance the inflow of FDI. After that, these countries also are trying to move forward is to revamp the entire civil service which could provide enough preferential treatment and protection for foreign investors.References Bank of China, 2012, Packing Loan, International Trade Financing. Accessed on: http://www. boc. cn/en/cbservice/cb3/cb35/200806/t20080627_1324121. html Shapiro, A. C. , 2010, Multinational Financial Management, 9th edn, John Wiley & Sons, New York, p. 198, p. 227, p. 230, p. 356, p. 357, p. 359, p. 464, p. 466, , p. 636, p. 638. U. S. Bureau of Economic Analysis, 2012, U. S. Direct Investment Position Abroad on a Historical-Cost Basis. [pic][pic][pic][pic][pic][pic]

Best sentencing for alcohol offenders Essay

ABSTRACT This paper will argue the fact that house arrest is the best option for alcohol offenders. It will prove through research that most alcohol offenders that have been sentenced to prison time become repeat offenders. Research will also show that offenders sentenced to SCRAMx were less likely to abuse alcohol once released. It will also show how house arrest saves the state money by making the offender pay a fixed rate for their time served on house arrest. Alcohol offenders are those who commit a crime while under the influence of alcohol. Some examples of these offenders are First-time and Repeat DUI/DWI offenders, offenders who commit homicide or assault while in an automobile, alcohol offenders who are charged with domestic violence, people on parole or probation who are known to use alcohol, minors that have been arrested for alcohol abuse, adults that take care of or oversee minors, offenders trying to reinstate their driving privileges, and licensed professionals who abuse alcohol. Most of these offenders are fined, have their driver’s license revoked and made to attend MADD (Mothers Against Drunk Drivers) meetings and MASEP (Mississippi Alcohol Safety Education Program) classes. Offenders are required to get SR22 insurance on their automobile and pay a reinstatement fee of $125 in the state of Mississippi, before they can have their license reinstated. Repeat offenders are sentenced to pay a higher fine and spend a longer time without their license. In some states third time offenders are sentenced to serve time in prison, in others, however, offenders are fined, have their licenses revoked for three years and made to spend twenty four to forty eight hours in jail. Would it not be more effective to sentence alcohol offenders to house arrest after the first offense? Some people feel that prison sentences are the best options for  alcohol offenders, however, house arrest is the best option. Secure Continuous Remote Alcohol Monitoring System (SCRAMx) combines the Continuous Alcohol Monitoring system with the traditional house arrest bracelet. It provides alcohol monitoring every thirty minutes, twenty four hours a day, seven days a week instead of having to set up an appointment for the offender to come in and be tested for alcohol in his or her system. It saves the county and state in which the offender is serving his or her sentence considerable time, resources, and budgets because it is paid for by the offender and he or she is monitored continuously by GPS tracking. (AMS, Inc., 2012) It saves time and resources by letting the probation officer and other officials monitor the offender’s actions from a computer in his or her office. It saves the budget of the county and state by having the offender pay a fee for his or her time served. SCRAMx effects long-term behavioral change that cannot be achieved by incarceration. By helping the offender become alcohol free and find the reason for his or her alcohol abuse, SCRAMx is changing the life of the offender. SCRAMx offers significant advantages to the courts and supervising agencies that use it, as well as to the offenders themselves. The majority of judges hearing cases involving SCRAMx have recognized that the device is accurate, reliable, and generally accepted. The accuracy and reliability come from measuring the alcohol intake of an offender through transdermal alcohol concentrations in the sweat and insensible perspiration (oils) of the skin cells. Since these tests are done every thirty minutes it omits the possibility of the offender drinking the night before the test is set up to be done in an office setting. Courts accept these results because they are accurate and tamper resistant. SCRAMx allows probation officers and courts to manage hundreds of offender’s right from their desk. The non-invasive testing frees up time and requires no labor from the parties involved. SCRAMx helps improve offender outcomes by letting them maintain family obligations, hold jobs, and contri bute positively to the community they live in. (AMS, Inc., 2012) SCRAMx helps ease the problem of jail overcrowding by keeping non-violent  offenders out on house arrest. SCRAMx provides a cost-effective alternative to jail for those prisoners who are not a threat to the community when they are sober. County jails and prisons are populated by a high number of offenders awaiting trial. SCRAMx would reduce jail/prison overcrowding for offenders awaiting trial by providing a way for court officials to monitor and track those offenders from their offices. (Mitchell, 2012) SCRAMx helps individuals get the help they need to sober up, thus ending the revolving door of incarceration. (AMS, Inc., 20120) The revolving doors of incarceration are also known as recidivism. According to the Merriam Webster Dictionary, recidivism is a tendency to relapse into a previous condition or mode of behavior; especially: relapse into criminal behavior. (Merriam-Webster, 2012) SCRAMx gives offenders a sense of security, continuous accountability, financial responsibility and much more. First, it helps protect public safety, and provides a sense of security for the offender often saving their lives because they stop drinking. Second, Participants of the SCRAMx program give credit to the bracelet for saving their lives. Other programs are easy to beat while drinking. SCRAMx reminds the offender that they are not supposed to drink thus for keeping them sober. Sober days are twenty four hour periods in which the offender has no confirmed alcohol consumption and no confirmed tamper attempts or circumvent testing in order to mask the consumption of alcohol. Third, financial responsibility comes from the offender having to pay for their time on the program. Offenders feel that they are responsible for their own success in finishing the program. (AMS, Inc., 2012) Some people feel that SCRAMx gives offenders too much freedom unlike prisons where they are under constant supervision. Incarcerating an offender costs prisons approximately $25,251 a year and keeps them off the streets while they serve their sentence. (Lappin, 2011) Once released from prison the offender is required to pay a fine and attend alcohol treatment related therapy. The one common program they are asked to attend is Alcoholics Anonymous (AA). This type of therapy is held in a group setting where people with alcohol addictions meet to talk about their lives and the time they  have spent sober. Offenders must meet with a parole officer on a monthly basis to ensure they are meeting the terms of their parole. Most terms of probation are simple. Some examples are letting the parole officer know where you live and work and if there are any changes in residence and work, letting them know if you are going to be more than 50 miles away from home, and how long you will be away. (C DCR, 2010) There are very strict rules that offenders participating the SCRAMx program must follow. Offenders participating in the SCRAMx program have a set schedule and curfew which keeps them off the streets during popular drinking hours. Offenders are only allowed to leave when it is cleared by the probation/parole officer monitoring their sentence. Most common schedules revolve around work schedules and appointments to meet with the probation/parole officer. They are monitored by a Continuous Alcohol Monitoring system that tests every thirty minutes for alcohol levels in their system. Offenders on the SCRAMx program are held accountable for their actions so the first time they try to tamper with the device or have a bad test are returned to prison custody. (AMS, Inc., 2012) Sentencing alcohol offenders to prison sentences is the number one punishment handed down by courts of law. These sentences cost the state and counties in which the crime is committed millions of dollars a year. SCRAMx, the house arrest program for alcohol offenders, has been proven to offer a better solution for the overcrowding problem in our prison systems. It also helps the offender maintain sobriety and keep them from becoming repeat offenders. Some people feel that prison sentences are the best solution, however, house arrest is the best option for alcohol offenders. In many ways it benefits both the state and the offender. Wouldn’t you agree? REFERENCES AMS, Inc., (2012) SCRAMx for AMS, The SCRAMx System, Retrieved on December 29, 2012 from www.alcoholmonitoring.com/index/scram/the-scramx-system AMS, Inc., (2012) SCRAMx from AMS, The Benefits of SCRAMx, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.alcoholmonitoring.com/index/scram/scramx-benefits Mitchell, Matt (July, 2012) NACo Passes Resolution Supporting Transdermal Testing for Pre-Trial Populations, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.alcoholmonitoring.com/blog/2012/07/naco-passes-resolution-supporting-transdermal-testing-fro-pre-trail-population/#.UNCStneE21o AMS, Inc., (2012) SCRAMx for AMS, Solutions, Jail Depopulation, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.alcoholmonitoring.com/index/programs/jail-depopulation Merriam-Webster, Inc., (2012) Definition of recidivism, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/recidivism AMS, Inc., (2012) SCRAMx for AMS, About Us, The Offender Perspective, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.alcholmonitoring.com/index/scram/offender-perspective Lappin, Harley G (February, 2011) Annual Determination of Average Cost of Incarceration, Office of the Federal Register (US) Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.federalregister.gov/articles/2011/02/03/2011-2363/annual-determination-of-average-cost-of-incarceration California Department of Corrections and Rehabilitation (2010) Division of Adult Parole Operations, Parolee Conditions, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from http://www.cdcr.ca.gov/parole/parolee_conditions/index.html AMS, Inc., (2012) SCRAMx for AMS, The SCRAMx System, Retrieved on December 31, 2012 from www.alcoholmonitoring.com/index/scram/the-scramx-system

Clinical Trial On Piriformis Anaesthetic Health And Social Care Essay

The purpose of this clinical test is to compare the patients of pure piriformis syndrome treated with local anesthetic alone or a combination of local anesthetic and methylprednisolone. Thirty-one patients diagnosed with piriformis syndrome who received a fluoroscopy guided piriformis musculus injection. There were no signii ¬?cant differences in average baseline VAS scores between the two groups of the survey. There were a signii ¬?cant differences between average baseline and average VAS tonss obtained during telephone interview for both groups.Pain VAS had improved by a agencies of 5.13 and 6.06 compared to the baseline degree in the local anesthetic and steroid groups, severally. It was concluded that no extra benefit from utilizing corticoid was identified after piriformis musculus injection and both bupivacaine entirely and in combination with methylprednisolone have a important consequence in alleviating chronic hurting of pure piriformis syndrome. Piriformis syndrome is an uncommon and frequently underdiagnosed cause of hurting in the cheek part and referred hurting in the lower dorsum and leg. Intolerance to sitting, dyspareunia in females, and sciatica are some of the common symptoms attributed to this syndrome. It is the true diagnosing in 6 % to 8 % of patients with back hurting and sciatica. Mechanism normally accepted is an inflamed or spastic piriformis musculus that compresses the sciatic nervus against the bony pelvic girdle. Trauma, hypertrophy and anatomic fluctuations of musculus and sciatic nervus, infections, myositis ossificans are common cause of piriformis syndrome. Priformis syndrome may be treated by curative stretch, massage, ultrasound, use and non steroidal antiinflammatory drugs. Caudal steroid injection, injection of piriformis musculus with local anesthetics and steroids or botulinus toxins, and surgical resection of the musculus have been reported as effectual intervention options. Injections may be performed blindly, with musculus electromyography, fluoroscopy, ultrasound, or with computed tomographic or MRI counsel. Nerve stimulators may besides be used to place the sciatic nervus. Local anesthetics interrupt the pain-spasm rhythm and resounding nociceptor transmittal, whereas corticoids have anti-inflammatory belongingss related to suppression of prostaglandin synthesis, decreases in regional degrees of inflammatory go-betweens and by doing a reversible local anesthetic consequence. Eventhough their antiinflammatory belongingss corticoids have been hypothesized to be of benei ¬?t for nervus root infiltration. The emerging grounds besides implies that the durable curative consequence may be obtained with local anesthetics with or without steroids. Tachihara et Al. illustrated that no extra benefit from utilizing corticoid was identified after nervus root infiltration. Therefore, it is suggested that corticoids may be unneeded for nervus root blocks. There are besides inauspicious reactions in response to the disposal of man-made corticoids such as dermatologic conditions, osteonecrosis, peptic ulcer formation, weight addition, hyperglycaemia, Cushing ‘s syndrome and psychiatric symptoms changing from mild temper alterations to wholly developed psychosis. In the present survey, the purpose was to measure the patients of pure piriformis syndrome treated with local anesthetic alone or a combination of local anesthetic and methylprednisolone.MethodsThis survey conducted on retrospective rating of 31 patients diagnosed with piriformis syndrome, at the University of Inonu, School of Medicine, Departments of Physical Medicine and Rehabilitation and Pain Clinic, Malatya, Turkey between 2007 to 2009, who received a fluoroscopy guided piriformis musculus injection. All the patients were given elaborate information on the process and informed written consent was obtained from all of them. The present survey was approved by Local Ethics Committee. Piriformis syndrome was diagnosed from the followers: clinical history, physical scrutiny, EMG findings and by excepting other pathological conditions of the lumbar, sacral, sacroiliac and hep joint countries by physical scrutiny and magnetic resonance imagination or computed imaging if needed. Piriformis syndrome was suggested by hurting on tactual exploration of the sciatic notch and reproduction of hurting with manoeuvres that stretch or contract the piriformis musculus over the sciatic nervus such as forceful internal rotary motion of extended thigh ( Freiberg ‘s Maneuver ) and active hip flexure, abduction or adduction and internal rotary motion by the patient lying with the painful side up, the painful leg flexed and articulatio genus resting on the tabular array ( Beatty ‘s manoeuvre ) . All patients were examined by a individual hurting specializer and non referred by any other doctor. Exclusion standards included patients known allergic reactions to local anesthe tic and bleeding diathesis. Piriformis injections were carried out by a individual hurting specializer. The patients were placed prone on a fluoroscopy tabular array. In a unfertile manner, the cheek country on the affected side was widely prepped and draped. AP position of the hemi-pelvis and cotyloid part was obtained and so a metal marker is placed on 1/3 of sidelong facet of fanciful line between the greater trochanter and sacrum. Local infiltration with 0.5 % prilocaine was used for local anesthesia. Two milliliter of radiographic contrast stuff ( iohexol ) was injected to obtain a satisfactory myogram ( Figure 1 ) . A syringe was prepared with 10 milliliters of 0.5 % bupivacaine in local anesthetic group or 9 milliliter of 0.5 % bupivacaine + 40 milligram methylprednisolone ( 10 milliliters entire ) in steroid group and injected into the piriformis musculus after negative aspiration for blood. Following the process patients should observe alleviation of their usual hurting. All patients were responded good to a individual injection. The patients that were stubborn to local anesthetic and/or steroid medicine were non considered as a exclusive piriformis syndrome and non included to the survey. After the process, the patients were transferred to the recovery room for 1 hr and until any leg numbness subsides. If hurting persisted a 2nd injection was carried out with same manner. The primary result parametric quantity of the survey was hurting assessed by VAS, analgetic usage, hurting on motion and patient satisfaction. Follow-up scrutinies were conducted by telephone interview 6 months after local injection. Analysiss were performed utilizing SPSS 16.0 version ( SPSS Inc. , Chicago, IL ) . The Kolmogorov-Smirnov trial was used to find whether the informations deviated from the normal distribution. Nonparametric informations were evaluated with the Mann-Whitney U trial. Proportions were compared utilizing the Chi-square trial. P & A ; lt ; 0.05 was considered as important.ConsequencesMedical records of 68 patients with piriformis syndrome were evaluated. Thirty-one patients fuli ¬?lled the inclusion standards. The patient ‘s features including age, sex, weight, tallness, involved side and history of hurting until injection were comparable between groups ( Table 1 ) . No signii ¬?cant differences were noted sing first diagnosing before acknowledging hurting clinic, and conventional used intervention ( Table 2 ) . Three patient from local anesthetic group and two patients from steroid group needed to reiterate injection ( Table 2 ) . The injections for these 5 patients were repeated in a twosome of yearss. The other patients did non hold a repetition injection. There were no important differences between average baseline VAS scores between the two groups of the survey. There were important differences between average baseline and average VAS tonss obtained during telephone interview for both groups ( P & A ; lt ; 0.041 ) . Pain VAS had improved by a agencies of 5.1 and 6.1 compared to the baseline degree in the local anesthetic and steroid groups, severally. Adverse effects were seen by 27 % of the steroid and 6 % of the placebo patients. These included sleepiness in 2 steroid group patients, and 1 local anesthetic group patient, hypotension lasted in two yearss in 1 and temper alterations in 1 steroid group patients. There were no other inauspicious effects such as fluctuations of glucose degree, gastro-intestinal hemorrhage, osteonecrosis, infection, or demand of extra medical intervention attributed to the investigational medicines.DiscussionPiriformis syndrome is non to the full understood clinical syndrome and typically characterized by stray sciatic hurting limited to the cheek with radiation down the thigh, without centripetal shortages or neurogenic cause. Robinson described six diagnostic characteristics of piriformis syndrome which were: ( I ) a history of injury to the sacroiliac and gluteal parts ; ( II ) hurting in the part of the sacroiliac articulation, greater sciatic notch, and piriformis musculus that normally extends d own the limb and causes trouble with walking ; ( III ) acute aggravation of hurting caused by crouching or raising ; ( IV ) a tangible allantoid mass, stamp to tactual exploration, over the piriformis musculus on the affected side ; ( V ) a positive Las & A ; egrave ; gue mark ; and ( VI ) gluteal wasting, depending on the continuance of the status. There is no dependable nonsubjective trial to place the piriformis musculus syndrome and this is leads in many instances to great seeking for the beginning of the intractable sciatica among the lumbar pathologies. Many writers have considered injury in the gluteal country as the major cause of piriformis syndrome. Jawish et Al. believed that piriformis syndrome could be related to exacerbated rotators activity as it was observed in patients with difficult physical activity, Walkers, sports and football player or with insistent injury of nervus in patients with drawn-out sitting place. Regardless of the physiopathologic beginning of the c omplex upset, physical scrutiny and imaging surveies should be combined to corroborate the diagnosing. As, piriformis syndrome is a diagnosing of exclusion, although the patients had radicular symptoms were exluded from the survey, other imagination or correlativity to except were more common causes of sciatic hurting, such as lumbar phonograph record herniation, posterior aspect syndromes or spinal stricture, had been obtained from our included patients. The intervention end is directed ab initio toward diminishing ini ¬Ã¢â‚¬Å¡ammation, associated hurting, and cramp as hurting originates due to the entrapment of the nervus root or to one of its subdivisions, taking to the development of myofascial trigger point. This hurting may besides be due to energy crisis produced from a loss of O and alimentary supply in the presence of an increased metabolic demand. This leads to the release of neuroactive biochemicals that sensitize nearby nervousnesss that in bend initiate the motor and sensory of myofascial trigger point via the cardinal nervous system ensuing in mechanical hypersensitivity. Injection of the 10 milliliter local anesthetic into the abdomen of the musculus as we used in our survey may rinse up such biochemicals. This injection may ensue in musculus relaxation and release of the entrapped nervus. To our cognition, our survey is the i ¬?rst clinical test comparing the effectivity of local anesthetic and methylprednisolone added to the local anesthetic. Naja et Al. compared bupivacaine ( 9 mL 0.5 % bupivacaine in a entire volume of 10 milliliter ) and bupivacaine plus clonidine ( 9 mL 0.5 % bupivacaine and 1 milliliter 150 milligram Catapres ) in a randomised double-blind test included 80 patients with piriformis syndrome who received a nervus stimulator guided piriformis injection. The average VAS tonss obtained after 6 months follow up were 4.5, 3.5 and 3.3 on walking, sitting and lying down, severally. Better consequences with Catapres had been obtained. Benzon et Al. retrospectively reviewed the charts of 19 patients who had received piriformis musculus injections and described a technique for piriformis injection. After 80-100 milligram methyl Pediapred or Aristocort injection to the schiatic nervus and piriformis musculus, 18 of the 19 patients responded to the injectio n, with betterments runing from a few hours to 3 months. The three patients with pure piriformis syndrome had 70-90 % response to piriformis injection for 1-3 months. In Fishman et al.5 survey all participants received an injection of 1.5 milliliter of 2 % Lidocaine and 0.5 milliliter ( 20 milligram ) of Aristocort and improved an norm of 71.1 % , proposing the efi ¬?cacy of corticoid and lidocaine injection combined with physical therapy in handling piriformis syndrome. Filler et Al. reported 162 patients with pure piriformis syndrome given 10 milliliter of bupivacaine and 1 milliliter of celestone: 14.9 % had sustained hurting alleviation runing from 8 months to 6 old ages without return, 7.5 % had 2 to 4 months of alleviation but required a 2nd injection, 36.6 % had 2 to 4 months of alleviation but experienced return after a 2nd injection, 25.4 % of these patients benefited for merely 2 hebdomads, and 15.7 % received no benefit. The consequence of this retrospective survey pointed out that both bupivacaine entirely and in combination with methylprednisolone have a important consequence in alleviating chronic hurting of pure piriformis syndrome and it was concluded that no extra benefit from utilizing corticoid was identified after piriformis musculus injection. Competing involvement: No external support and no viing involvements declared

Is Sociology a Science

Is Sociology a science? This paper will aim to explore the question ‘Is Sociology a science? ’ We will explore the definitions of Science and Sociology and then go onto examine various perspectives and theories surrounding the subject heading. Sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte and Weber will be examined. This paper is intended as an overview of two different schools of thought, those of positivist and anti-positivist approaches I will outline the main principals for each Sociologist covered. I will then give my personal views on the question, and attempt to answer it within my conclusion. Firstly, in order to examine the essay title it must be laid out exactly what we mean by ‘Science’ and ‘Sociology’ Science definition. Science is, according to the Oxford dictionary 2002 â€Å"The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiments†. Sociology definition. Sociology on the other hand is described as, according to the Hutchins encyclopaedia , â€Å"the systematic study of the origin of human society, in particular of social order and social change, social conflict and social problems. It studies institutions such as the family, law and the church, as well as concepts such as the norm, role, and culture. Sociology attempts to study people in their social environment according to underlying moral, philosophical and political codes of behaviour. † There are various ‘schools of thought’ when it comes to answering the question we are debating. This paper will take a brief look at approaches such as positivist and anti-positivist approaches. It is often debated that thee are two separate schools of thought when discussing Sociology. There is the first notion that Sociology is based on fact and figures using quantitive data and analysis. The second suggestion is that Sociology is based on qualitative data and is surrounded by the need to understand why’s, where’s and how’s that make up society. It is only right to start with the views of Emile Durkheim, who is seen as some, the father of sociology and one of the greatest positivists of all time. The term ‘positivist’ simply relates to a person/group of sociologists whom believe that Sociology to be a science ie quantative data analysis He expressed the need for quantitive data and in depth analysis in order to gain a true insight. He appreciated the fact that data and results were an accurate way of analysing and assessing the world and he applied these principals to the examination of society. In his text ‘The Rules of Sociological Methods’ (first published in 1895) Durkheim set out how he believed logic and methodology was the key to the successful study of ‘sociology’. Emile Durkheim carried out what could be described as a famous study where he studied the suicide rates of European countries. This process weighted heavily on analysis of data and actual facts, just as science is based on facts. Durkheim’s argument was that any theory should be backed up with evidence. This evidence could only be found by the gathering and analysis of data. He believed that the correct route was to gather the data and develop theories that supported that evidence. Positivists view things â€Å"in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the scientific domain† (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Durkheim is what we would call a ‘Positivist’. Positivists believe that there are many similarities to the research methods embraced by scientists. When we consider this fact is it very easy to state that a posivitist will only study when its subjects and analysis can be quantified ie they are measurable, and can be observed and reported on. Auguste Comte, whom is arguably one of the first Sociologists, sought an empirical way of thinking towards sociological issues . Comte states that sociology should only be concerned with matters where you can get results based on data collation and facts- not based on assumption. Comte believed it was possible to have a good handle on the prediction of further trends and patterns within society. Empirical evidence is the key in positivism. Comte argued that positivism goes through three stages, † the law of the three stages†. It ‘claims that human efforts to understand the human world have passed through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. ‘ (Giddens, 2006, page 11) Now we will go on to examine the ‘other sides of the coin’ and look at the subjectivists’ and realists sociologists’ theories regarding sociology as a science. Various writers could be seen to be labelled anti-positivist, or believers that sociology is not a science. Such sociologists believe that the researcher should concern themselves with human cultural norms, values and processes that are viewed from a subjective perspective. Weber (1864-1920) defined sociology as ‘a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to thereby arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects’ (1964 p88). Weber was one of the founders of the â€Å"Verstehen† method, along with Simmel. Verstehen simply means â€Å"understanding† or †interpretation†. This method involves an outsider attempting to relate to a person or persons from a specific group of people from their point of view. The realists approach to Sociology generally consist of accepting that there are differences between science and sociology – but it should be mentioned that this approach does allow for a social science. Andrew Sayer (1992) expressed differences between ‘open and closed systems as arenas of study’ (Sociology in focus 638)A good example of this ‘closed system’ would be a science lab where conditions can be heavily controlled, this gives way to fixed conditions that can be maintained or fluctuated by the lab. It has to be noted that a large amount of scientific research takes place outside of a controlled environment and this would be classed as an ‘open system’ Sayer argues that the behaviour and interaction of human beings takes place in open arenas and therefore the results cannot be predicted with any accuracy attached to it. But realists do not rule out completely the fact that sociology is indeed a science. Realists can be perceived to argue that the study named sociology could be based on the same principals as ‘science’ in the fact that both are concerned with exploring and evaluating an end roduct. Ray Pawson described the notion that there are two separate types of sociology as the ‘methodological myth’. He argues that two sociologies do not exist and that sociology is made up from a wide range of opinions Conclusion It has been shown within the context of this paper that Sociology can be viewed from both perspectives ie. As a science and t he opposing view that it cannot be classed as a science. From a personal perspective I believe that Sociology is indeed a science, if carried out in its ‘true sense’. In order for sociologists to be taken seriously in the world we must quantify what we are saying. This must be done with the assistance of data and observation, then opinions must be formed based on this data and facts we have collated. It is simply not good enough to provide readers with ideas of what may be true, as this is surely just opinion, rather than fact! If sociology was solely about opinions rather than showing empirical evidence to back up ones claims then surely each and every individual on the planet could rightly call themselves sociologists.. Bibliography Bilton, T, Bonnett, K et al (1996) Introductory Sociology 3rd Edition. Mc Millan Press: London http://sociology. org. uk/atssp7. htm. Accessed 14/2/2010 Cotgrove, S (1967) The Science of Society: An Introduction to Sociology, Allen & Unwin: London Hutchins encyclopaedia Keat & Urry (1975) Social Theory as Science, Routledge: London Oxford Dictionary ( 2002) Taylor et all (2000) Sociology in focus Causeway press:London www. jstor. org/stable/4026005 accessed 1/2/10 http://www. emile-durkheim. com/ accessed 18/2/10 Is Sociology a Science Is Sociology a science? This paper will aim to explore the question ‘Is Sociology a science? ’ We will explore the definitions of Science and Sociology and then go onto examine various perspectives and theories surrounding the subject heading. Sociologists such as Durkheim, Comte and Weber will be examined. This paper is intended as an overview of two different schools of thought, those of positivist and anti-positivist approaches I will outline the main principals for each Sociologist covered. I will then give my personal views on the question, and attempt to answer it within my conclusion. Firstly, in order to examine the essay title it must be laid out exactly what we mean by ‘Science’ and ‘Sociology’ Science definition. Science is, according to the Oxford dictionary 2002 â€Å"The systematic study of the structure and behaviour of the physical and natural world through observation and experiments†. Sociology definition. Sociology on the other hand is described as, according to the Hutchins encyclopaedia , â€Å"the systematic study of the origin of human society, in particular of social order and social change, social conflict and social problems. It studies institutions such as the family, law and the church, as well as concepts such as the norm, role, and culture. Sociology attempts to study people in their social environment according to underlying moral, philosophical and political codes of behaviour. † There are various ‘schools of thought’ when it comes to answering the question we are debating. This paper will take a brief look at approaches such as positivist and anti-positivist approaches. It is often debated that thee are two separate schools of thought when discussing Sociology. There is the first notion that Sociology is based on fact and figures using quantitive data and analysis. The second suggestion is that Sociology is based on qualitative data and is surrounded by the need to understand why’s, where’s and how’s that make up society. It is only right to start with the views of Emile Durkheim, who is seen as some, the father of sociology and one of the greatest positivists of all time. The term ‘positivist’ simply relates to a person/group of sociologists whom believe that Sociology to be a science ie quantative data analysis He expressed the need for quantitive data and in depth analysis in order to gain a true insight. He appreciated the fact that data and results were an accurate way of analysing and assessing the world and he applied these principals to the examination of society. In his text ‘The Rules of Sociological Methods’ (first published in 1895) Durkheim set out how he believed logic and methodology was the key to the successful study of ‘sociology’. Emile Durkheim carried out what could be described as a famous study where he studied the suicide rates of European countries. This process weighted heavily on analysis of data and actual facts, just as science is based on facts. Durkheim’s argument was that any theory should be backed up with evidence. This evidence could only be found by the gathering and analysis of data. He believed that the correct route was to gather the data and develop theories that supported that evidence. Positivists view things â€Å"in the same state of mind as the physicist, chemist or physiologist when he probes into a still unexplored region of the scientific domain† (Durkheim 1964: xiv). Durkheim is what we would call a ‘Positivist’. Positivists believe that there are many similarities to the research methods embraced by scientists. When we consider this fact is it very easy to state that a posivitist will only study when its subjects and analysis can be quantified ie they are measurable, and can be observed and reported on. Auguste Comte, whom is arguably one of the first Sociologists, sought an empirical way of thinking towards sociological issues . Comte states that sociology should only be concerned with matters where you can get results based on data collation and facts- not based on assumption. Comte believed it was possible to have a good handle on the prediction of further trends and patterns within society. Empirical evidence is the key in positivism. Comte argued that positivism goes through three stages, † the law of the three stages†. It ‘claims that human efforts to understand the human world have passed through theological, metaphysical and positive stages. ‘ (Giddens, 2006, page 11) Now we will go on to examine the ‘other sides of the coin’ and look at the subjectivists’ and realists sociologists’ theories regarding sociology as a science. Various writers could be seen to be labelled anti-positivist, or believers that sociology is not a science. Such sociologists believe that the researcher should concern themselves with human cultural norms, values and processes that are viewed from a subjective perspective. Weber (1864-1920) defined sociology as ‘a science which attempts the interpretive understanding of social action in order to thereby arrive at a casual explanation of its course and effects’ (1964 p88). Weber was one of the founders of the â€Å"Verstehen† method, along with Simmel. Verstehen simply means â€Å"understanding† or †interpretation†. This method involves an outsider attempting to relate to a person or persons from a specific group of people from their point of view. The realists approach to Sociology generally consist of accepting that there are differences between science and sociology – but it should be mentioned that this approach does allow for a social science. Andrew Sayer (1992) expressed differences between ‘open and closed systems as arenas of study’ (Sociology in focus 638)A good example of this ‘closed system’ would be a science lab where conditions can be heavily controlled, this gives way to fixed conditions that can be maintained or fluctuated by the lab. It has to be noted that a large amount of scientific research takes place outside of a controlled environment and this would be classed as an ‘open system’ Sayer argues that the behaviour and interaction of human beings takes place in open arenas and therefore the results cannot be predicted with any accuracy attached to it. But realists do not rule out completely the fact that sociology is indeed a science. Realists can be perceived to argue that the study named sociology could be based on the same principals as ‘science’ in the fact that both are concerned with exploring and evaluating an end roduct. Ray Pawson described the notion that there are two separate types of sociology as the ‘methodological myth’. He argues that two sociologies do not exist and that sociology is made up from a wide range of opinions Conclusion It has been shown within the context of this paper that Sociology can be viewed from both perspectives ie. As a science and t he opposing view that it cannot be classed as a science. From a personal perspective I believe that Sociology is indeed a science, if carried out in its ‘true sense’. In order for sociologists to be taken seriously in the world we must quantify what we are saying. This must be done with the assistance of data and observation, then opinions must be formed based on this data and facts we have collated. It is simply not good enough to provide readers with ideas of what may be true, as this is surely just opinion, rather than fact! If sociology was solely about opinions rather than showing empirical evidence to back up ones claims then surely each and every individual on the planet could rightly call themselves sociologists.. Bibliography Bilton, T, Bonnett, K et al (1996) Introductory Sociology 3rd Edition. Mc Millan Press: London http://sociology. org. uk/atssp7. htm. Accessed 14/2/2010 Cotgrove, S (1967) The Science of Society: An Introduction to Sociology, Allen & Unwin: London Hutchins encyclopaedia Keat & Urry (1975) Social Theory as Science, Routledge: London Oxford Dictionary ( 2002) Taylor et all (2000) Sociology in focus Causeway press:London www. jstor. org/stable/4026005 accessed 1/2/10 http://www. emile-durkheim. com/ accessed 18/2/10